Band 4 publications, instructional techniques

As people age, their reactions tend to slow and they can take longer to assess hazards. Don't try to rush them, but be tolerant and patient.

Motorcycles are small vehicles and can be difficult to see. If the rider wears bright clothing, it can make it easier for other road users to see them approaching, especially at junctions.

It's important to reduce direct instruction and transfer the responsibility for learning to the pupil as quickly as possible. You must ensure that the pupil understands what they need to do and how they need to do it. Once they have this knowledge, they should be allowed to practise and develop their competence without constant instruction.

In client-centred learning, there should be lots of opportunities for you to observe how your pupil's learning is going. You should provide frequent feedback on their progress, based on these observations, and talk to your pupil about how they view their progress. Then you can adjust the lesson content to meet your pupil's learning needs.

If a serious incident occurs that requires you to use the dual controls, it's vital that the pupil fully understands what happened and how they could have avoided the situation or dealt with it better.

Taking time to establish a pupil's learning goals and needs provides you with the information you need to make an effective learning plan. It involves the pupil in the planning process, so the final product is something they have agreed to and engaged with.

All-round observation is essential throughout any manoeuvre. Drivers should use their mirrors and pay particular attention to the direction in which they're moving, to vulnerable road users, and to what might be happening in any blind spots.

Learning is far more effective when a pupil can identify for themselves the reason why something has gone wrong. If they can't work it out, you can help them to understand with an explanation or a diagram. When they understand the problem, the pupil should then practise this manoeuvre.

Demonstration, where appropriate, is a valuable tool in the learning process. However, for it to be effective, a pupil must have an opportunity to raise any questions and check their understanding. They then need to practise this new skill.

Learning isn't always a continuous process. Sometimes pupils simply need time to consolidate learning before moving on. On other occasions there may be something blocking progress. You should work with the learner to understand what's happening and agree how to move on.

If your usual techniques or methods don't appear to be working, you should discuss the matter with your pupil, and explore alternative ways of getting the point across.

When teaching a pupil how to move off on a downhill gradient for the first time, the instructor will have to tell them which gear to use. However, as the pupil's skill develops, they should be encouraged to think for themselves and to make decisions based on their knowledge and experience.

A transfer of knowledge is when links are made between previous experience and the new skills to be learned. For example, a pedestrian who can judge appropriate gaps in the traffic to cross the road can link this skill to turning right into side roads when they learn to drive. A good instructor will identify these links.

Detailed instruction should decrease as the pupil's ability increases. An instructor shouldn't be controlling the pupil all of the time. This takes the initiative away from the pupil and could be considered over-instruction.

Simply telling a pupil that they're driving too fast isn't sufficient. Explanations need to be given, highlighting what may occur if they repeat the fault. More importantly, they need to know what to do to prevent it from happening again.

Learning isn't always a continuous upward process. Sometimes pupils simply need time to consolidate learning before moving on. On other occasions there may be something blocking progress. You should work with the learner to understand what's happening and decide how to proceed.

You should agree a plan with your pupil at the start of a lesson. However, as the lesson progresses it may become clear that the plan needs to be adapted - for example, if there's a gap in the pupil's knowledge that needs to be filled before they can proceed. You should agree with your pupil how to deal with that gap, even if it means changing the original lesson plan.

The key attitude to develop in driving is active responsibility. For most pupils, and adolescents in particular, exercising responsibility needs to be learnt. You should encourage and give learners the opportunity to practise taking responsibility.

A headlight flash means only that the other driver is making their presence known. It is not an invitation or a reliable statement of what they will do. Teach the learner to observe the whole situation, use their own judgement and proceed only when safe.

When stopping a car, a gear change is often not needed. Modern cars have powerful brakes and tyres with good grip. This makes it generally unnecessary to select a lower gear before stopping.